and a similar electrochemical potential (about 200 millivolts [mV] across the membrane) as modern cells have. Russell has long maintained that natural proton gradients played a central role in ...

At the inner mitochondrial membrane, a high energy electron is passed along an electron transport chain. The energy released pumps hydrogen out of the matrix space. The gradient created by this ...

This takes place when molecules diffuse across the cell membrane by travelling through specific transport proteins. It occurs down a concentration gradient - molecules move from an area of high to ...